A detailed May 2025 comparison of debt, interest rates, and inflation across India, US, China, Japan, and Russia. What it means for growth and policy. 

As of May 2025, the global economy is grappling with debt levels never witnessed before. The situation is exacerbated by multiple factors – Covid-19 pandemic, Geopolitical conflicts, Trade disruptions and Economic challenges. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) projects global public debt to reach 95% of GDP in 2025, a 2.8% increase from 2024, with a trajectory toward 100% by 2030. We examine here the debt profiles of 5 nations – the United States, India, China, Japan, and Russia—whose fiscal policies collectively influence over 50% of global economic output. It becomes imperative to compare those nations as their debt dynamics shape financial markets, tech innovations and economic stability.

Country-Wise Breakdown

United States

• Debt-to-GDP Ratio: Approximately ~124%

• Key Challenges: The United States’ national debt, exceeding $33 trillion, incurs net interest payments of $892 billion in 2024, projected to escalate to $1.7 trillion by 2034. Rising 10-year Treasury yields, currently at 4.5%, amplify servicing costs, while political polarization over the debt ceiling, with negotiations looming in early 2025, heightens fiscal uncertainty. The US benefits from the dollar’s status as the world’s reserve currency, enabling sustained deficit financing, yet this privilege masks long-term inflationary risks derived from persistent fiscal deficits averaging 6% of GDP. Elevated Federal Reserve interest rates, maintained at 4.5-5%, constrain potential household and corporate borrowing.

• Economic Nuances: An aging population and entitlement spending drive structural deficits, with interest costs now rivaling defense expenditures. Rising political gridlock in Washington—marked by deep divisions between Republicans and Democrats in Congress—continues to stall key fiscal reforms such as tax restructuring and entitlement spending control(Social security, Medicare & Medicaid). This persistent inaction heightens the risk of missed debt ceiling deadlines and unaddressed budget deficits, prompting credit rating agencies like Moody’s to place the U.S.’s AAA sovereign rating under negative watch. If unresolved, such gridlock could erode investor confidence and raise long-term borrowing costs. Sustained inflation, at 3.6% CPI, could erode investor confidence if monetary tightening persists, impacting equity markets and tech valuations.

Note: Debt ceiling is a legal limit set by Congress on how much the U.S. government can borrow to pay its existing bills. 

India

• Debt-to-GDP Ratio: Approximately 81%

• Key Challenges: India’s public debt, predominantly denominated in rupees and 90% domestically held, mitigates foreign exchange risks but crowds out private sector investment. Debt servicing consumes 5% of GDP annually, competing with critical capital expenditure needs for infrastructure which is estimated at $1.7 trillion by 2030. Inflation is currently hovering at 3.34%, and the Reserve Bank of India’s (RBI) policy rate of 6.0% limit fiscal maneuverability, though robust economic growth of ~6.4% in 2025 supports debt sustainability. India’s BBB- credit rating faces potential upgrades contingent on continued fiscal consolidation and structural reforms.

• Economic Nuances: Domestic debt ownership shields India from global financial shocks, but high interest rates might create funding constraints for technology startups and AI initiatives, the key pillars of its digital economy. The government’s target to reduce debt-to-GDP to 50% by 2031 balances growth and fiscal prudence, yet populist spending ahead of elections risks derailing this trajectory, potentially undermining investor confidence and market stability.

China

• Debt-to-GDP Ratio: Approximately ~80%, but including local government and state-owned enterprise (SOE) liabilities, estimates exceed 300% (IMF, S&P Global, 2025). While China’s official debt-to-GDP stands at ~80%, estimates rise above 300% when including local government and state-owned enterprise liabilities, exposing significant hidden fiscal risks.

• Key Challenges: China’s debt has surged post-COVID, fueled by an overburdened property sector, exemplified by Evergrande’s $300 billion default, and opaque shadow banking activities. Demographic decline, with a shrinking workforce, and slowing economic growth, projected at 4% for 2025, increase fiscal pressures.The sharp escalation of U.S. tariffs as of April 2025—poses a severe threat to China’s export-driven revenue, while Beijing’s continued stimulus efforts to combat deflation (CPI at just 0.5%) risk further public debt accumulation. China’s ambitious AI Industry Development Action Plan outlines a $137 billion investment over five years, aiming to strengthen its AI capabilities across various sectors. While this substantial funding underscores China’s commitment to technological advancement, it also raises concerns about diverting resources from addressing existing debt challenges, potentially amplifying fiscal burden.

• Economic Nuances: Hidden debt in local government financing vehicles obscures fiscal transparency, eroding investor trust and complicates credit risk assessments. The yuan, at 7.27(5th May 2025) to the USD, faces depreciation pressures from trade disruptions, potentially destabilizing financial markets. A potential fiscal squeeze looms if property market stabilization falters, constraining China’s ability to sustain AI and technology leadership amidst global competition.

Japan

• Debt-to-GDP Ratio: Approximately 255%

• Key Challenges: Japan holds the world’s highest debt-to-GDP ratio, yet its debt remains manageable due to 95% domestic ownership and ultra-low interest rates, with the Bank of Japan (BOJ) maintaining a policy rate of 0.25%. Decades of quantitative easing have suppressed yields, but the yen’s depreciation to 144(5th May 2025) against the USD increases import costs, straining consumers. An aging population and sluggish growth, projected at 0.5% for 2025, limit fiscal flexibility, with debt servicing costs equivalent to five times the education budget. Japan’s AI and Industrial IoT ambitions, targeting a $1.7 trillion market by 2030, rely heavily on private investment due to public sector constraints.

• Economic Nuances: Currency devaluation boosts export competitiveness but erodes domestic purchasing power, risking inflationary pressures if global yields rise. The BOJ’s potential shift to tighter policy could trigger stagflation, disrupting equity markets and tech valuations. Japan’s fiscal stability hinges on maintaining investor confidence in its domestic bond market, a delicate balance amid global economic volatility.

Note: Stagflation is an economic condition where high inflation occurs alongside stagnant growth and rising unemployment, creating a policy dilemma. 

Russia

• Debt-to-GDP Ratio: Approximately 20%

• Key Challenges: Russia’s low debt-to-GDP ratio conceals significant fiscal vulnerabilities. Western sanctions since 2014, intensified post-2022 ,have frozen $300 billion of its $640 billion foreign reserves, limiting external borrowing to $50 billion. A tripled budget deficit in 2025, reaching 1.7% of GDP, stems from declining oil revenues (Urals crude at $67/barrel) and war-related expenditures exceeding $10 billion monthly. Inflation at 8% and a central bank rate of 21% constrain domestic borrowing, severely limiting investments in AI and technology critical for economic diversification.

• Economic Nuances: Oil price volatility and reduced export markets due to sanctions exacerbate fiscal strain, with debt servicing costs rising 43% in Q1 2025. Russia’s reliance on Chinese technology for AI development, due to restricted access to Western chips, underscores its economic isolation. A potential sovereign default looms if deficits persist, though limited foreign debt mitigates global spillover. Domestic economic pressures threaten sustainable growth, with implications for financial market stability in the region.

Implications

• Inflation and Interest Rates: Elevated debt levels across these economies fuel inflationary pressures, particularly in the U.S. (3.6% CPI) and Russia (8%), where high interest rates (4.5% and 21%, respectively) constrain growth. China’s deflationary risks necessitate stimulus, potentially worsening debt, while India’s 3.34%% inflation provides some room to capex. Japan’s low inflation (~2.5%) may shift if BOJ tightens policy, impacting global yields.

• Central Bank Policies: The Federal Reserve’s tight stance contrasts with the BOJ’s loose policy, creating currency imbalances. The RBI’s cautious rate revisions balance growth and inflation, while Russia’s high rates stifle investment. China’s central bank faces a delicate balancing act to avoid deflation without triggering a debt spiral.

• Credit Ratings and Investor Confidence: The U.S. and Japan face rating downgrade risks if fiscal reforms stall, while India’s rating outlook is positive with disciplined consolidation. China’s opaque debt metrics erode trust, and Russia’s isolation limits its creditworthiness, impacting bond yields and equity markets.

• Currency Strength: The dollar’s dominance supports U.S. debt sustainability, but yuan depreciation and yen weakness threaten China and Japan’s economic stability. Russia’s ruble volatility, driven by oil prices, undermines investor confidence.x

• Stagflation and Fiscal Squeeze: China and Russia risk stagflation if growth slows amid high debt servicing. The U.S. and India face fiscal squeezes if interest costs crowd out productive spending, while Japan’s low growth and high debt heighten stagflation risks.

Among the five nations, India is best positioned to manage its debt due to robust growth, domestic ownership, and reform momentum, though vigilance against populist spending is critical. The U.S. benefits from dollar privilege but faces long-term risks from inflation and political gridlock. Japan’s debt is sustainable short-term, but currency and demographic pressures loom. China’s hidden debt and tariff exposure pose significant risks, while Russia’s low debt is offset by geopolitical and fiscal vulnerabilities, limiting sustainable growth.

Investors should monitor central bank policies, particularly the Federal Reserve and BOJ, for signals of rate shifts that could disrupt markets. Policymakers must prioritize fiscal consolidation and structural reforms to ensure debt sustainability, while businesses, especially in tech and AI, should prepare for funding constraints in high-debt environments. The global debt trajectory in 2025 underscores the need for economic due diligence for navigating economic complexities and to safeguard sustainable growth.